Founded by the renowned Leon Festinger, the concept of cognitive dissonance is regarded as one of the most important theories within the field of psychology. This theory originated with a study of a small cult group in Minnesota, known as the Seekers, who believed that the end of the world would occur by a flood in the United States (Festinger, Riecken & Schachter, 1964). Mrs. Marion Keech (the alias given to the group’s leader) claimed to receive messages from aliens via telepathy. These voices had informed her that her followers and she were to be the only ones saved via flying saucers from the Earth’s imminent destruction. Leon Festinger along with his coworkers were able to infiltrate in the group as members and participate in their regular meetings. The researchers hypothesized as to what would occur when December 21, 1954 had come and reality settles in. Festinger and his colleagues predicted that the members, who had made strong commitments to the group, would intensify their proselytizing work in order to reduce the severity of their dissonance.

Cognitive dissonance stands for “a drive or feeling of discomfort, originally defined as being caused by holding two or more inconsistent cognitions and subsequently defined as being caused by performing an action that is discrepant from one’s customary, typical self-concept”(Aronson, Wilson & Akert, 2013). In other words, people are motivated to be consistent in their beliefs and attitudes. However, when a behavior is practiced in a way that is inconsistent, tension and anxiety would occur (cognitive dissonance). This anxiety motivates the person to take action to reduce the unpleasant feeling. In fact, there are several ways that this reduction can be established. People could either change their behavior to fit with their attitude, change the attitude to fit in line with their behavior or add a new condition to make their attitudes and behaviors consistent (Aronson, Wilson & Akert, 2013). The article will review cognitive dissonance experienced by members of two religious movements: Chabad (Lubavitch) Hasidim and Jehovah’s Witnesses.

The origins of the Chabad Hasidim sect can be traced back to 18^th century Russia. This religious movement is one of the largest Hasidic groups in the Jewish community. It is characterized by its seven Rabbis who were believed to have a connection to the House of David. The last Rabbi, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson, passed away in 1994 without leaving a successor. Being the son-in-law of the sixth Lubavitcher, Rabbi Yosef Yitzhak, and a very charismatic person, Rabbi Menachem Mendel was thought to be the actual Messiah. Even though he never accepted or denied that title, in the later years of his life his followers were convinced that the Messiah could be no other but their beloved Rabbi. Since he did not leave any decedents, it is as of no surprise that his death was a dramatic event within the movement. His death in 1994 resulted in an array of attitudes and behaviors from his members. Some simply denied his death and waited for his reappearance at his residence at 770 Eastern Parkway in Crown Heights, Brooklyn, New York. Others however, embraced a different attitude and would visit his tomb at Old Montefiore Cemetery in Cambria Heights, Queens, eagerly expecting his resurrection. Cognitive dissonance theory helps us to understand why his followers could not grasp reality, which is that indeed, their “Messiah” had passed away before accomplishing his mission on Earth. In order to reduce this inconsistency, they had to encompass an approach to reduce the dissonance. Hence, they came up with the idea that the Rabbi is spiritually present and what they needed to do is simply wait for him to reveal himself at his residence after which he was to reign as the promised Messiah (Kravel-Tovi & Bilu, 2008, p. 68). In order to accomplish this task however, a loaded language concerning “time” was used and accepted by all members. For instance, time was divided in three categories: “once” or “previously” (e.g. what used to be when the Rabbi was alive), the “current situation”, which stands for the current time frame since his death and lastly, the “redemption” period, when the Rabbi will be with his followers again which will happen “any moment now” (Kravel-Tovi & Bilu, 2008, p. 69). To cope with this situation, followers are either constantly reminding themselves of how it used to be “once” thus comparing the past with the present or looking forward to the future, when “redemption” would occur “just at once, right away” and their “Messiah” would be back.

The second religious movement worth examination is that of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Jehovah’s Witnesses are generally known to the public for their aggressive proselytizing work, their refusal of blood transfusions, strong anticipation of the imminent occurrence of Armageddon and last but not least, to numerous failed prophesies. Started in the 1870’s, in a small town in Pennsylvania by Charles Taze Russell, the group was initially called by the name “Bible Students”. Charles Taze Russell worked closely with Nathan Barbour who believed that 1873-74 was to be a significant time for Christ’s return. In 1876 Charles Russell adopted this belief (Zygmunt, 1970, p. 931).  The expectation was that believers had only until 1878 when they would be gathered and transformed into a spiritual form. Because there was only a short period of time until that year, a strong proselytizing work had to be accomplish. It is noteworthy to point out that the initial evangelizing work done by the Bible Students was aimed towards Christians only. The preaching focused not on the salvation from sin, but rather emphasized a higher calling, when those who already lived as Christians would receive their greater reward as being appointed as spiritual rulers in Christ’s kingdom (Zygmunt, 1970, p. 930).  When 1878 came and went without the fulfillment of this prediction, disappointment had to be reduced. To cope with this, the appointment of a new year, 1881 was said to hold great significance. This new year was revealed through a “careful analysis” of the Bible. When that year came and went without incident, members experienced a deeper crisis, which was reduced by putting faith in the future date of 1914.  This time however, there were thirty, and not less than five years until that special year. This period of the group’s history was defined by a structural and organizational change, including the incorporation of the organization in the state of Pennsylvania. Even though the end (Armageddon) was near (thirty years away), it was still far enough out that the group had to restructure itself in order to survive. When 1914 passed, first 1918 and then 1925 were pointed to as the years expected to fulfill biblical prophecy. After the disappointment of 1925, it appeared that the group had stopped marking specific years for the fulfillment of Bible promises. After a period they went on to emphasize the importance of 1975 (Zygmunt, 1970, p. 941).  The cognitive dissonance theory assists us in understanding the attitudes and behaviors displayed by the Bible Students group (later renamed to Jehovah’s Witnesses). Initially, after every failed prophecy there was a disappointment in the membership and a decrease in their evangelizing work. However, the disappointment was quickly replaced with a new understanding of “God’s unfolding purpose”. What makes this organization so fascinating is the fact that every time a prophecy turned out to be incorrect, it was quickly rationalized as an actual fulfillment, though not the fulfillment as originally predicted, but nonetheless a part of God’s plan. Interestingly enough, these partial fulfillments were explained only after, and not before, their occurrence. A new understanding was adopted after each failed foretold year. For instance, 1878 was defined as the year when all Christian churches, except the Bible Students, were abandoned by God. 1881 was the year when members who had passed away were said to be transformed into spiritual beings. 1914 was defined as the “end of the Gentile Times” when the kindness of God was no longer evident in the midst of believing Christians. 1918 signified Chris’s invisible inspection of the temple for judgment “(Zygmunt, 1970, p. 933). These continual revisions coupled together with a life in the modern world, where so many attribute every event, big or small, to a sign of the end of the world, helped Witnesses to retain some control of their membership as well as to cope with the many disappointments that they had experienced throughout their history.
In conclusion, the cognitive dissonance theory helps us to explain how individuals are able to reduce the unpleasant state of discomfort (Festinger, 1962, p. 94). By dissonance reduction, people are able to adjust thoughts and behaviors in order to withstand unwanted stress and anxiety. For an unbeliever, accepting the fact that a prophecy has failed is a fairly simple action, a matter of fact. In contrast, the believer cannot admit failure, but rather a justification of the event must take place. Instead of an unfulfilled event, the prophecy is considered as previously misunderstood by the group with emphasis now put on a new understanding which replaces the previously held belief. It is evident then, that members of the above mentioned religious movements utilize the technique of dissonance reduction in order to cope with the pressure and tension of reconciling ever changing teachings and inconsistencies.

References

Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2013). Social psychology (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education

Festinger, L. (1962). Cognitive dissonance. Scientific American, 207(4), 93-107. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1062-93

Festinger, L., Riecken, H., & Schachter, S. (1964). When prophecy fails: A social and psychological study of a modern group that predicted the destruction of the world. Oxford England: Harper Torchbooks. 

Kravel-Tovi, M., & Bilu, Y. (2008). The work of the present: Constructing messianic temporality in the wake of failed prophecy among Chabad Hasidim. American Ethnologist, 35(1), 64-80. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1425.2008.00006.x

Melton, J. (1985). Spiritualization and reaffirmation: What really happens when prophecy fails. American Studies, 26(2), 17-29

Zygmunt, J. (1970). Prophetic Failure and Chiliastic Identity: The case of Jehovah’s Witnesses. American Journal of Sociology, 75(6), 926-948